Accordingly, integration of microbial-based approaches through maintaining a healthy gut microbiota is highly demanded. Gut microbiota work in concert with the GI tract protects the host from the toxicity of mycotoxins.
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The GI tract is where the gut microbiota resides: it is known for its role in modulating the immune system and digestive processes. When mycotoxins are introduced into the organism from food, they first come to interact with the gastrointestinal (GI) tract ( Assunção et al., 2016). The implementation of more practical and affordable mycotoxin removal techniques at the household level to effectively reduce exposure are becoming increasingly important. Current data are valid to justify and respond to reduce exposure in vulnerable populations ( Freire and da Rocha, 2017). To date, the world still desires for a more accurate evidence-based on mycotoxins and human health, as well as a better biomarker of exposure and data from studies of disease distribution. The attention only has been paid in the richer nations of the world, to meet stringent import regulations on mycotoxin contamination ( Battilani et al., 2016). The exposure is long-term and often at high doses, regretfully these particular regions are the least regulated in terms of agricultural practices and human exposure. Nevertheless, the global health issue arose from mycotoxin is still frequently ignored in many low-income countries, where mycotoxins affect staple foods ( Wild and Gong, 2010). Data clearly showed the significance of mycotoxin research which will be further discussed later in this review paper. The momentum of scientific paper publication toward mycotoxin is an increasing trend where 16,821 papers were recorded in Scopus since the first mycotoxin, aflatoxin (AF) was identified in the year 1965. Such knowledge potentially drives the development of novel and innovative strategies for the prevention and therapy of mycotoxin contamination and mycotoxicosis. The interactions between gut microbiota and mycotoxins have a significant role in the development of mycotoxicosis, particularly hepatocellular carcinoma. Most, if not all, of the reported effects of mycotoxins, are negative in terms of intestinal health, where beneficial bacteria are eliminated accompanied by an increase of the gut pathogen. Moreover, mycotoxins have been demonstrated for modulation of gut microbiota composition, and such alteration in gut microbiota can be observed up to species level in some of the studies. Findings revealed that the gut microbiota is capable of eliminating mycotoxin from the host naturally, provided that the host is healthy with a balance gut microbiota. It is now well established that a healthy gut microbiota is largely responsible for the overall health of the host. The bacteria–xenobiotic interplay for the host is highlighted in this review article. Recent insights have generated an entirely new perspective where there is a bi-directional relationship exists between mycotoxins and gut microbiota, thus suggesting that our gut microbiota might be involved in the development of mycotoxicosis. Certainly, mycotoxins cause perturbation in the gut, particularly in the intestinal epithelial.
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This review comprehensively discussed the role of mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxins, and aflatoxins) toward gut health and gut microbiota. The occurrence of mycotoxins' contamination is further stimulated by the on-going global warming as reflected in some findings.
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Contamination of feedstuffs as well as food commodities by fungi occurs frequently in a natural manner and is accompanied by the presence of mycotoxins. The secondary metabolites produced by fungi known as mycotoxins, are capable of causing mycotoxicosis (diseases and death) in human and animals.
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Winnie-Pui-Pui Liew and Sabran Mohd-Redzwan *